The rise of industrial whaling

WHY DID WE EXPLOIT WHALES?

Whales have been hunted by humans for thousands of years. Whales were killed for one reason – money. Huge profits were made from the products of whales.

From the 18th century onwards, industrial whaling became a significant economic venture, driven by demand for whale oil. Advances in technology, including steam-powered ships and explosive harpoons, allowed whalers to hunt more efficiently and at an unprecedented scale. This relentless pursuit decimated whale populations, leading to the near extinction of several species.

A busy day at Grytviken whaling station, South Georgia, March 1926.
Painted by Sir Alister Hardy. Image: © Royal Museums Greenwich

As early as 1775, whales were reported in South Georgia waters when Captain James Cook first visited and discovered the island. In the 19th century, it was a site of exploitation for Antarctic Fur Seals, taken for their pelts and almost driven to extinction.

It was not however until the 20th century that South Georgia became the epicentre of modern whaling in the Southern Hemisphere.

During the 18th and 19th centuries whale oil became hugely important to the rapidly industrialising European nations. The invention of hydrogenated fats fuelled modern industrial whaling into the 20th century. With whale numbers depleted in the north, companies turned their eyes south to seek the stock of whales needed. Grytviken was the first shore station in the Southern Hemisphere, operating between 1904-1965.

The Antarctic whaling grounds in 1942
The hatched area represents the approximate regions covered by the factory ships and by catchers based on South Georgia.
Discovery reports Vol XXII, June 1942.

Growing populations and a food shortage following both world wars put a big strain on traditional sources of fats such as butter, lard, and milk. Cheaper than vegetable oils, in the 1920s and 30s, margarine was almost 100% whale oil. This demand continued until as recently as the 1960s.

Weaning ourselves off whale oil marked a significant turning point in both industrial practices and conservation efforts. As whale oil became a sought-after global commodity in the 19th century, its demand spurred extensive hunting, leading to drastic declines in whale populations. However, the advent of alternative resources—such as petroleum, vegetable oils, and synthetic products—enabled societies to shift away from reliance on whale oil. This transition not only helped mitigate the environmental impact of whaling but also spurred innovations in energy and manufacturing.

A shopkeeper stamps a ration book for one week’s supply of tea, sugar, ‘national butter’, special margarine, cooking fats and bacon. Image: © Imperial War Museum

This table shows the total number of whales killed worldwide as collected by the International Whaling Commission. *© Rocha et al. (2014) & the International Whaling Commission (IWC)*

The consequences of industrial whaling were devastating. These once-abundant species faced drastic population declines, ecosystems were disrupted, and the intricate balance of marine life was threatened. The loss of these magnificent creatures not only impacted biodiversity but also affected the livelihoods and cultures of communities that relied on whaling.

At its peak, South Georgia was home to six industrialised shore stations. Over 175,000 whales were killed and processed at the stations of South Georgia alone, producing 9 million barrels of oil. During the brief time of industrialised whaling, it is estimated that around 2 million whales were taken from Antarctic waters.

A shortage of stocks: The Discovery Investigations

Following the enormous whaling increase at South Georgia and other parts of the Southern Ocean during the 1920s, concern was expressed about the future of the industry. How could the industry protect its future and its principal natural resource, the whale?

A scientific committee set up with an objective to provide a scientific foundation for the whaling industry and reporting on stock management. The Discovery Investigations (1925-1951) were a series of scientific surveys to study whale biology, populations, and their food sources, particularly Antarctic Krill.

This scientific party worked from Discovery House at King Edward Point from 1925-31 making detailed notes of all the whales that were brought into Grytviken whaling station. They observed whales during scientific cruises on Captain Scott’s ship, Discovery, which was refitted as a research ship.

Deep sea pelagic life and detail of Euphausia superba.
Sir Alister Hardy, artist and scientist on board the Discovery Investigations first voyage.
Image: © Royal Museums Greenwich

Shore-based work on South Georgia was carried out in Discovery House, built in 1925 at King Edward Point. The building housed the laboratory for scientists to analyse data taken from whales that were being processed at Grytviken whaling station.

Southern Right Whale in South Georgia's waters in 2025. © British Antarctic Survey – Wild Water Whales / Hungry Humpbacks project.

Accompanying the RRS *Discovery*, the RRS *William Scoresby* was specially built and launched in December 1925. In 1929 RRS *Discovery* was replaced by the new RRS *Discovery II.*

The work of the Discovery Investigations is some of the most ambitious scientific studies ever undertaken. The crews carried out thousands of routine oceanographic observations, discovered the presence of the Antarctic Convergence and circumnavigated the Antarctic continent twice. RRS Discovery, RRS Discovery II and RRS William Scoresby covered hundreds of thousands of miles, making many notable findings. Thirty-eight volumes of scientific reports were published. The data is still the primary reference for marine studies of the Southern Ocean. The work contributed hugely to our knowledge of the whales and the oceanography of their habitat.

WHY DID WE EXPLOIT WHALES?

A shortage of stocks: The Discovery Investigations